Decline of the Mughal Empire:
Later Mughals (Post-Aurangzeb Emperors & Key Developments):
Bahadur Shah I (Shah Alam I) (1707-1712):
Accession: War of succession against brothers Azam Shah and Kam Bakhsh.
Policies: Known for a policy of compromise and conciliation ("Shah-i-Bekhabar" - Khafi Khan's term, possibly reflecting indecisiveness or deliberate policy). Tried to reverse some of Aurangzeb's harsher policies.
Rajput Relations: Attempted reconciliation with Amber (Jai Singh) and Marwar (Ajit Singh), but faced resistance. Eventually reached uneasy settlements.
Maratha Relations: Granted Sardeshmukhi but not Chauth over the Deccan to Shahu (released from Mughal captivity). This ambiguity kept Maratha internal conflicts alive (Shahu vs. Tarabai) but didn't fully satisfy Maratha demands.
Sikh Relations: Initially conciliatory, but took strong action against Banda Bahadur's uprising in Punjab, recapturing Lohgarh. Died before Banda could be fully suppressed.
Financial Situation: Lavish grants of jagirs and promotions worsened the financial state and Jagirdari crisis.
Overall: Brief restoration of some imperial prestige, but underlying issues remained unaddressed.
Jahandar Shah (1712-1713):
Accession: Supported by Zulfiqar Khan (powerful noble, son of Asad Khan), won war of succession.
Role of Zulfiqar Khan: Became Wazir (Prime Minister), effectively ran the administration. Consolidated power, promoted supporters.
Policies: Abolished Jaziya (religious tax on non-Muslims). Granted titles and offices to Rajput rulers (Jai Singh, Ajit Singh). Made peace with Churaman Jat. Continued Bahadur Shah's Maratha policy (granted Chauth and Sardeshmukhi formally under Faujdar's oversight). Introduced Izarah (revenue farming) on a large scale, which proved detrimental to peasantry.
Court Culture: Reign noted for frivolity and decline in court decorum (influence of Lal Kunwar, his favourite).
Overthrow: Defeated and killed by his nephew Farrukhsiyar, aided by the Sayyid Brothers.
Farrukhsiyar (1713-1719):
Accession: Rose to power with the help of the Sayyid Brothers - Abdullah Khan (Wazir) and Hussain Ali Khan (Mir Bakshi).
Role of Sayyid Brothers ('Kingmakers'): Dominated the administration. Followed conciliatory policies towards Rajputs, Jats, Marathas. Hussain Ali made a pact with Maratha Peshwa Balaji Vishwanath (1719), granting significant concessions in the Deccan (formal rights to Chauth & Sardeshmukhi, Swarajya territory recognition) in return for military aid.
Farman to EIC (1717): Granted significant trade privileges (duty-free trade in Bengal for annual payment, right to issue dastaks - passes) to the English East India Company. This was later misused, causing friction with Nawabs of Bengal.
Court Intrigue: Emperor resented Sayyids' power, leading to constant plots and counter-plots involving other nobles (like Nizam-ul-Mulk, Chin Qilich Khan).
Downfall: Deposed, blinded, and eventually killed by the Sayyid Brothers.
Muhammad Shah 'Rangeela' (1719-1748):
Accession: Placed on throne by Sayyid Brothers after brief reigns of Rafi-ud-Darajat and Rafi-ud-Daulah. Eventually overthrew the Sayyids (1720) with help of Nizam-ul-Mulk and other nobles.
Long Reign & Character: Long but ineffective rule. Nicknamed 'Rangeela' due to luxurious lifestyle and neglect of administration. Patron of arts and music (Urdu poetry, Qawwali, Kathak flourished).
Rise of Regional Powers: Acceleration of provincial governors asserting autonomy:
Nizam-ul-Mulk established virtual independence in Hyderabad (Deccan) after 1724.
Saadat Khan Burhan-ul-Mulk established hereditary rule in Awadh.
Murshid Quli Khan (and successors) made Bengal effectively independent.
Rohillas established themselves in Rohilkhand.
Maratha Expansion: Maratha raids under Peshwa Baji Rao I reached the outskirts of Delhi (1737), exposing Mughal weakness. Malwa and Gujarat lost to Marathas.
Nadir Shah's Invasion (1739):
Causes: Extreme Mughal weakness, wealth attraction, alleged refusal to prevent Afghan rebels fleeing into India, possible invitation by disgruntled Mughal nobles.
Course: Nadir Shah sweeps through Punjab, defeats Mughal army at the Battle of Karnal (Feb 1739 - showcased poor Mughal leadership and tactics).
Sack of Delhi: Entered Delhi, massacre ordered after skirmishes, systematic looting over weeks. Immense wealth plundered, including the Peacock Throne and Koh-i-Noor diamond.
Impact: Devastating blow to Mughal prestige and finances, exposed military impotence, accelerated disintegration, encouraged further invasions (Abdali) and Maratha assertiveness.
Later Rulers (Ahmad Shah to Bahadur Shah Zafar):
Ahmad Shah (1748-1754): Reign marked by power struggles between nobles (Safdar Jang vs. Imad-ul-Mulk). Influence of Queen Mother Udham Bai (Qibla-i-Alam). Ahmad Shah Abdali's invasions began, Punjab ceded. Deposed and blinded by Imad-ul-Mulk.
Alamgir II (1754-1759): Puppet ruler under Imad-ul-Mulk. Abdali sacked Delhi again (1757). Battle of Plassey (1757) occurred in Bengal during his reign, highlighting shift of power elsewhere. Murdered by Imad-ul-Mulk.
Shah Alam II (1759-1806): Long reign, mostly powerless.
Early Years: Wandered outside Delhi due to court intrigues.
Key Events: Third Battle of Panipat (1761) fought during his nominal reign. Battle of Buxar (1764) - defeated along with Nawabs of Awadh & Bengal.
Post-Buxar: Became pensioner of EIC under Treaty of Allahabad (1765), granted Diwani of Bengal, Bihar, Orissa to EIC.
Later Years: Briefly restored to Delhi under Maratha protection (Mahadji Scindia, 1772). Blinded by Rohilla chief Ghulam Qadir (1788). Rescued by Scindia again. Came under British protection after 1803 (defeat of Marathas). Power confined to Red Fort area.
Akbar II (1806-1837): Ruled under British protection. Authority limited to Red Fort. Best known for giving the title 'Raja' to Ram Mohan Roy, whom he sent to England to plead for an increase in his pension.
Bahadur Shah II 'Zafar' (1837-1857): Last Mughal Emperor. Talented Urdu poet. Nominal head, British power paramount. Became the symbolic leader of the Revolt of 1857. Captured after revolt's suppression, tried, and exiled to Rangoon (Burma), where he died (1862). End of the Mughal dynasty.
Causes of Decline :
Internal Weaknesses:
Weak Successors & Wars of Succession: Lack of clear succession law (Timurid tradition). Frequent wars drained treasury, eliminated capable administrators/generals, created instability, allowed regional powers & nobles to increase influence during transitions. Examples: Wars after Aurangzeb, Jahandar Shah, Farrukhsiyar.
Degeneration of Nobility (Crisis of Nobility):
Factionalism: Intense rivalry between court factions (Irani, Turani - foreign nobles; Hindustani - Indian Muslims & allied Rajputs/Jats) for power, wealth (jagirs), key offices (Wazir, Mir Bakshi). Based on ethnicity, kinship, religion (Shia/Sunni undertones). Led to administrative paralysis, instability, assassinations, civil wars.
Corruption & Loss of Character: Nobles became focused on self-interest, luxury, intrigue rather than state service. Bribery, inefficiency became rampant. Reduced military effectiveness (failed to maintain required troops). Loss of loyalty to the throne/empire.
Jagirdari Crisis:
Nature: Shortage of available jagirs (lands assigned to nobles for salary/troop maintenance) compared to number of claimants (Mansabdars). Led to 'Bejagiri' (waiting list/landlessness).
Impact: Reduced efficiency of Mansabdars (couldn't maintain troops properly). Encouraged exploitation of peasants (frequent transfers of Jagirdars led to maximising short-term revenue). Rise of Izarah system (revenue farming auctioned to highest bidder) - led to rack-renting and peasant distress. Weakened military strength. Contributed to administrative breakdown.
Mansabdari System Breakdown: Rank inflation (Zat rank high, but Sawar rank low or fictitious). Corruption in muster system (showing fake soldiers/horses). Nobles unable/unwilling to maintain required contingents. Salary payments often in arrears due to financial crisis.
Economic Crisis:
Stagnant Agriculture & Peasant Distress: High land revenue demand (often >50%). Exploitation by Jagirdars, Zamindars, Ijaradars. Lack of state investment in irrigation, technology. Frequent famines, peasant flight, and revolts (Jats, Satnamis, Sikhs initially) further disrupted production.
Scientific & Technological Stagnation: India lagged behind Europe in scientific/technological developments, especially military tech (metallurgy, shipbuilding, artillery) and production methods. Reasons debated: Rigid social structure, lack of state support, focus on traditional knowledge systems?
Drain of Resources & Financial Bankruptcy: Endless wars (Aurangzeb's Deccan campaigns, succession wars). Lavish spending by emperors & nobility. Declining revenue due to administrative chaos and loss of territories. Inability to pay salaries, fund administration or military effectively. Hoarding of wealth by nobles instead of productive investment.
Trade Imbalance & Disruption: Decline in export of Indian goods (textiles) due to European competition & industrial revolution later. Internal instability disrupted trade routes (unsafe roads, frequent tolls). Rise of European companies controlling sea trade, using political power (e.g., misuse of dastaks) to gain unfair advantage. Loss of bullion through Nadir Shah's plunder.
Military Weakness:
Outdated Military Technology & Tactics: Mughal army remained reliant on large, slow-moving heavy cavalry and elephants. Artillery was often cumbersome. Infantry neglected. Failed to adapt to lighter cavalry tactics (Marathas) or disciplined infantry and superior artillery (Europeans). No significant navy.
Lack of Discipline & Cohesion: Ill-paid, poorly trained soldiers. Mansabdars often failed to bring required, well-equipped contingents. Army composition (diverse groups) sometimes lacked cohesion. Leadership quality declined. Contrast sharply with disciplined, regularly paid European EIC armies.
Logistical Failures: Difficulty in provisioning and moving large Mughal armies efficiently.
Aurangzeb's Policies' Legacy:
Deccan Policy: Nearly 25 years of continuous warfare drained the treasury, diverted attention from North India, caused heavy loss of manpower and nobility. Failed to crush Marathas, instead spurred their growth and spread their conflict across India. Led to administrative neglect of the North.
Religious Policy: Policies perceived as intolerant (re-imposition of Jaziya, temple destruction, discrimination) alienated large sections of the non-Muslim population (Rajputs, Marathas, Sikhs, Jats), leading to rebellions and loss of support for the empire. Weakened the composite state built by predecessors.
Rajput Policy: His intervention in Marwar succession and conflict with Mewar ended the stable alliance established by Akbar. Tied down Mughal forces, destabilized a key region, and lost crucial military and administrative support.
External Challenges:
Foreign Invasions (Nadir Shah 1739, Ahmad Shah Abdali multiple times 1748-1767): These invasions were both a symptom and a cause of decline. They wouldn't have happened if the empire wasn't weak.
Impact: Exposed military hollowness, led to massive drain of wealth, loss of territory (Punjab, Sindh effectively lost), destruction of cities (Delhi repeatedly sacked), demoralization, further destabilized the political situation, created power vacuums exploited by regional powers and Europeans.
Third Battle of Panipat (1761): While fought between Marathas and Abdali, it signified the complete inability of the Mughal Emperor (Shah Alam II) to influence events even near his capital. It decided who wouldn't rule North India (Marathas), leaving the field open for the British EIC later.
Rise of Regional Aspirations & States:
Process: Enabled by central weakness (weak rulers, factionalism, military decline). Provincial governors (Nizams, Subahdars), originally Mughal officials, consolidated power locally, made offices hereditary, stopped sending regular revenue to Delhi, conducted own foreign policy, while often maintaining a facade of Mughal sovereignty (coins in Emperor's name, receiving titles). Examples: Hyderabad, Bengal, Awadh.
Rebel States: Groups like Marathas, Sikhs, Jats carved out independent states through direct conflict with Mughal authority.
Impact: Led to disintegration of the empire's political unity, loss of revenue and military resources for the centre.
Rise of Regional Powers: Detailed Expansion
I. Successor States (Evolved from Mughal Provinces):
A. Bengal:
Murshid Quli Khan (c. 1717-1727 - Effective Founder):
Background: Rose through ranks under Aurangzeb, appointed Diwan then Nazim (Governor) of Bengal. Shifted capital from Dhaka to Maksudabad (renamed Murshidabad).
Revenue Reforms: Aimed at increasing revenue collection and reducing power of old Zamindars. Introduced Mal Jasmani system (rigorous collection). Encouraged land survey and reassessment. Dispossessed defaulting Zamindars, favoured new loyal ones (often Hindus). Encouraged agriculture. Checked misuse of EIC trade privileges.
Autonomy: Virtually independent, sent nominal revenue to Delhi but ran administration autonomously. Maintained peace and order initially.
Shuja-ud-din (1727-1739): Son-in-law of Murshid Quli Khan. Relatively peaceful reign, maintained father-in-law's policies. Added governorship of Bihar.
Sarfaraz Khan (1739-1740): Son of Shuja-ud-din. Incompetent, overthrown and killed by Alivardi Khan.
Alivardi Khan (1740-1756):
Accession: Deputy Governor of Bihar, seized power militarily. Legitimacy confirmed by Mughal Emperor later (by payment).
Dealing with Marathas: Faced repeated devastating raids by Marathas (Bhonsles of Nagpur) demanding Chauth. Eventually agreed to pay annual Chauth (Rs. 12 Lakhs) and ceded Orissa territory (1751) to stop the raids. This drained the treasury.
Policy towards Europeans: Compared Europeans (especially English and French EIC) to bees: "honey if left undisturbed, but sting if provoked." Prevented them from fortifying settlements (except Calcutta) or fighting each other in his territory. Extracted wealth from them but maintained control.
Administration: Efficient administrator, promoted trade (though hampered by Maratha raids), generally fair rule. Did not groom a capable successor effectively.
Siraj-ud-Daulah (1756-1757):
Accession: Grandson of Alivardi Khan. Young and inexperienced, faced court intrigue (from relatives like Ghasiti Begum, Shaukat Jang) and opposition from powerful figures (Jagat Seth bankers, Mir Jafar).
Conflict with EIC: Reasons: EIC misuse of trade privileges (dastaks) causing revenue loss; Fortification of Fort William (Calcutta) without permission; EIC giving asylum to Krishna Das (political fugitive, son of Rajballabh).
Capture of Calcutta (1756): Siraj attacked and captured Calcutta.
Black Hole Incident' (June 1756): Alleged incident where British prisoners were confined in a small room, leading to many deaths. Account by J.Z. Holwell, possibly exaggerated, used as propaganda by EIC.
Treaty of Alinagar (Feb 1757): After Clive recaptured Calcutta, Siraj forced to sign treaty restoring EIC privileges and allowing fortification.
Battle of Plassey (June 23, 1757): Conspiracy between EIC (Clive) and Mir Jafar (Siraj's army chief), Jagat Seths, Rai Durlabh. Bulk of Siraj's army under conspirators did not fight. Siraj defeated, fled, captured and killed. Marks beginning of EIC political dominance in Bengal and India.
Economic Context: Bengal was one of the most prosperous Mughal provinces due to fertile land and thriving trade in textiles (silk, cotton), saltpeter, etc., before the political turmoil and EIC exploitation began.
B. Hyderabad:
Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah I (Chin Qilich Khan) (Effective Founder, Ruled Deccan c. 1724-1748):
Background: Leading Turani noble, key role in overthrowing Sayyid Brothers. Appointed Governor of Deccan, later Mughal Wazir (1722-24).
Consolidation in Deccan: Disgusted with Delhi court politics, returned to Deccan. Defeated rival Mughal governor Mubariz Khan at Battle of Shakarkheda (1724), establishing de facto independence. Received title 'Asaf Jah' from Emperor Muhammad Shah.
Administration: Organized administration on Mughal pattern but autonomous. Promoted agriculture, tried to control nobles, maintained order. Tolerant policy towards Hindus (appointed them to high posts).
Relations with Marathas: Constant conflict. Defeated by Peshwa Baji Rao I at Battle of Palkhed (1728), forced to acknowledge Maratha rights (Chauth/Sardeshmukhi) in Deccan. Later campaigns and shifting alliances.
Policy towards Europeans: Cautious, kept them at bay initially.
Successors & Anglo-French Rivalry: After his death (1748), succession disputes arose involving his sons (Nasir Jung, Salabat Jung) and grandson (Muzaffar Jung). These disputes became entangled with the Second Carnatic War, with British and French supporting rival claimants, leading to increased European influence in Hyderabad. Eventually became a key state under Subsidiary Alliance.
C. Awadh:
Saadat Khan Burhan-ul-Mulk (c. 1722-1739 - Founder):
Background: Persian Shia noble, involved in overthrowing Sayyids. Appointed Governor of Awadh (1722).
Consolidation: Suppressed rebellious local zamindars and chieftains. Introduced fresh revenue settlement, increasing state income. Established stable administration. Made governorship hereditary.
Role in Nadir Shah's Invasion: Fought at Karnal, taken prisoner. Played role in negotiations but later committed suicide due to perceived disgrace/political maneuvering.
Safdar Jang (1739-1754):
Succession: Nephew and son-in-law of Saadat Khan. Also appointed Mughal Wazir (1748-53).
Administration: Continued consolidation in Awadh. Played major role in Delhi court politics (struggle against Rohillas, Bangash Pathans, Imad-ul-Mulk).
Cultural Patronage: Shift of cultural patronage began towards Lucknow (capital shifted later). Development of distinct Awadhi culture (music, dance, architecture, literature - Urdu).
Shuja-ud-Daulah (1754-1775):
Alliances & Conflicts: Allied with Ahmad Shah Abdali briefly before Third Battle of Panipat (1761) but played minimal role. Allied with Mir Qasim (Bengal) and Shah Alam II (Mughal Emperor) against British, leading to defeat at Battle of Buxar (1764).
Treaty of Allahabad (1765): Forced to pay huge indemnity, cede Allahabad and Kora districts to Shah Alam II (under British control), sign defensive alliance with EIC. Awadh became a buffer state.
Later Dependence: Became increasingly dependent on EIC. Agreed to pay for British troops (Subsidiary Alliance in effect, formalized later). Annexed Rohilkhand with British help (Rohilla War, 1774).
Lucknow Culture: Reached its zenith under later Nawabs (Asaf-ud-Daula etc.), known for refinement, Ganga-Jamuni tehzeeb (composite Hindu-Muslim culture), but also perceived decadence leading to eventual annexation by Dalhousie (1856).
II. Independent Kingdoms:
A. Mysore:
Wodeyar Dynasty: Ruled Mysore region initially, became prominent after Vijayanagara decline. Became tributaries to Mughals/Marathas. Real power held by ministers (Dalwai) by mid-18th century (Krishnaraja Wodeyar II nominal ruler).
Hyder Ali (c. 1761-1782):
Rise to Power: Illiterate soldier, rose through military ranks due to merit. Became commander-in-chief, eventually overthrew the Dalwai (Nanjaraj) and took control, retaining Wodeyar as nominal head.
Military Innovations: Modernized army with French assistance (artillery, infantry training). Emphasis on strong cavalry. Effective intelligence system.
Administration: Efficient, centralized administration. Promoted agriculture and trade. Maintained order. Built strong financial base.
Expansion & Conflicts: Expanded Mysore's territory. Frequent wars with Marathas (often lost territory/paid tribute) and Nizam. First Anglo-Mysore War (1767-69): Successfully fought British, reached gates of Madras, forced Treaty of Madras (mutual defence pact). Second Anglo-Mysore War (1780-84): Joined anti-British coalition. Died during the war (cancer).
Tipu Sultan (1782-1799):
Continuation of Policies: Continued father's work of military modernization and state building. Known as 'Tiger of Mysore'.
State Organization: Highly centralized, bureaucratic state. Divided kingdom into provinces. Introduced new administrative code, legal reforms.
Economic Reforms: Attempted state monopolies in certain trades (pepper, sandalwood, cardamom). Set up state trading corporations with factories abroad. Introduced modern industries (sericulture). Land revenue reforms (eliminated intermediaries). Promoted infrastructure (roads).
Technological Experiments: Pioneer in rocketry (Mysorean rockets used effectively against British). Attempted to build a navy. Introduced new calendar, coinage, weights and measures. Personal interest in science and technology. Library patron.
International Diplomacy: Sent embassies to Ottoman Turkey, France, Afghanistan, seeking alliances against British. Member of French Jacobin Club briefly.
Religious Policy: Controversial. Patronized some Hindu temples (Sringeri Matha) but destroyed some temples/churches in conquered territories (Malabar, Coorg). Forced conversions alleged. State enterprises sometimes named after Hindu deities initially, later Islamic names used. Seen by some as tolerant modernizer, by others as fanatic.
Conflict with British: Saw British as main threat. Third Anglo-Mysore War (1790-92): Defeated by Cornwallis alliance (British, Marathas, Nizam). Lost half his territory, paid huge indemnity, sons taken hostage (Treaty of Seringapatam). Fourth Anglo-Mysore War (1799): Attacked by Wellesley alliance. Died defending his capital Seringapatam. Mysore kingdom restored to Wodeyars under Subsidiary Alliance.
Legacy: Symbol of resistance against British, innovator, modernizer before his time, but also seen as autocratic.
B. Kerala (Travancore State):
Martanda Varma (1729-1758):
State Formation: Inherited small kingdom of Venad, expanded through conquest and diplomacy, defeating neighbouring principalities (Attingal, Kollam, Kayamkulam, Ambalapuzha, etc.) to create the modern state of Travancore (capital Padmanabhapuram, later Trivandrum). Dedicated kingdom to presiding deity (Padmanabhaswamy - 'Padmanabhadasa').
Military Reforms: Built strong, modern army trained on European lines. Employed Eustachius De Lannoy, a captured Dutch officer, who served him loyally for decades, modernizing fortifications and artillery.
Battle of Colachel (1741): Decisive naval/land victory over the Dutch East India Company (VOC). Ended Dutch military ambitions in Kerala, captured De Lannoy. Significant event marking assertion of Indian power against a European company.
Administration: Centralized administration. Revenue reforms (detailed land survey - Kandezhuthu). Developed infrastructure (roads, canals). Promoted trade. Patronized arts and literature (Kunchan Nambiar).
Successors: Rama Varma 'Dharma Raja' (1758-1798) continued his policies, patronized arts, faced invasion from Tipu Sultan (which triggered Third Anglo-Mysore War). Travancore later accepted Subsidiary Alliance.
III. New States (Established through Rebellion/Consolidation):
A. Marathas: (See detailed expansion in previous response under Decline of Mughals; adding specifics here)
Peshwa Dynasty & Expansion: Focus on the mechanism of expansion (guerilla tactics under Baji Rao I, later more conventional armies), establishment of sphere of influence through Chauth/Sardeshmukhi collection networks across vast areas. Role of banking families in Pune.
Maratha Confederacy - Dynamics: Analyse the shift from unified mission under early Peshwas to semi-independent states under later Peshwas. Role of key figures in confederate families: Mahadji Sindhia (powerful figure in North India, modernized army), Malhar Rao Holkar & Ahilyabai Holkar (renowned administrator of Indore), Damaji Gaekwad, Raghuji Bhonsle (led Bengal raids). Constant friction between Peshwa (Pune court - Nana Phadnavis) and regional chiefs.
Administration & Society: Elaborate on village level administration (Patil - headman, Kulkarni - accountant). Baluta system (hereditary village servants). Judicial system (Panchayats, Nyayadhish). Development of Pune as administrative/cultural capital. Limitations (failure to consolidate administration in North, continued reliance on plunder/chauth in some areas, internal divisions).
B. Sikhs:
Post-Banda Bahadur Period (c. 1716-1760s): Era of persecution by Mughals/Afghans. Sikhs survived in small bands (jathas). Formation of Dal Khalsa (combined Sikh militia) around 1748, organised into two main groups (Budha Dal - veterans, Taruna Dal - younger fighters). Establishment of Rakhi system (protection money collected from villages). Gradual assertion of control over Punjab plains.
Misls (c. 1760s-1799): Details on the 12 Misls (meaning, approximate territories - e.g., Bhangi Misl controlled Lahore/Amritsar for a time). Nature of Misl leadership (hereditary chiefs, but emphasis on equality within the Misldars). Role of 'Sarbat Khalsa' and 'Gurmata' declined as Misls became more territorial and monarchical. Frequent inter-Misl warfare alongside collective action against external threats (Afghans).
Maharaja Ranjit Singh (1799-1839):
Unification Process: Systematically absorbed or subdued other Misls west of Sutlej through diplomacy and military force. Key acquisitions: Lahore (1799), Amritsar (1805 - from Bhangi Misl), Multan (1818), Kashmir (1819), Peshawar (1834).
Administration: Secular outlook (key posts to Hindus - Diwan Mohkam Chand, Diwan Bhawani Das; Muslims - Fakir Azizuddin (foreign minister); Europeans - Ventura, Allard). Departments (Daftars). Land Revenue flexible (Batai, Kankut, Zabti systems). Justice system based on customs, separate courts for Muslims. Efficient and relatively benign rule compared to predecessors. Promotion of trade.
Military Strength: Disciplined army ('Fauj-i-Ain'), elite 'Fauj-i-Khas'. Strong artillery ('Topkhana'). Emphasis on cavalry but also infantry. Considered one of the most powerful Indian armies of its time.
British Relations: Maintained careful balance. Treaty of Amritsar (1809) fixed Sutlej as border, accepted British protection over Cis-Sutlej Sikh states, secured his western flank. Foresaw British threat ("Sab lal ho jayega" - All will become red).
Succession & Decline: Failure to establish clear succession led to instability, court intrigue, and weakening of the army's discipline after his death, paving the way for British conquest (Anglo-Sikh Wars 1845-46, 1848-49).
C. Jats:
Rise: Originated as peasant uprisings against Mughal oppression. Consolidated power in region around Delhi, Agra, Mathura.
Key Forts: Bharatpur, Dig, Kumbher, Weir - known for strong mud fortifications.
Badan Singh (c. 1722-1756): Consolidated Jat territories, recognized as Raja by Mughals, built forts, laid foundation for Bharatpur state.
Raja Suraj Mal (1756-1763): Greatest Jat ruler. Expanded territory significantly. Known for wisdom, diplomacy, military prowess. Built famous palaces at Dig. Provided refuge to Marathas fleeing Panipat. Sacked Mughal centres like Agra (captured gates of Agra fort, installed at Bharatpur). Maintained large, well-equipped army. His death in battle (1763) marked the beginning of decline.
Decline: Internal succession disputes, attacks by Mughals, Marathas, Rajputs, and eventually British led to decline of Bharatpur state's power, though the kingdom survived.
D. Rohillas:
Foundation: Ali Muhammad Khan established autonomous state in Rohilkhand (capital shifted from Aonla to Bareilly/Rampur). Region known for fertile land.
Political Role: Played significant role in North Indian power struggles. Allied with Ahmad Shah Abdali against Marathas in Third Battle of Panipat (1761). Constant friction with neighbouring Awadh.
Rohilla War (1774): Nawab Shuja-ud-Daulah of Awadh, with British EIC military assistance (under Warren Hastings), invaded and annexed much of Rohilkhand. Controversial event due to British involvement (criticized during Hastings' impeachment). Rohilla power broken, remnants survived in Rampur state (later under British protection).
