Ancient History Notes-3 UPSC CSE

Buddhism and Jainism

After the end of Vedic age, various non-Vedic religious cults emerged in India and among them most prominent were Buddhism and Jainism. 

Reasons for their emergence:

1. Religious dominance of Brahmans. 
2. Subjugation of Vaishyas despite their wealth.
3. Support of trading community to these non-religions in order to secure higher social status in different religion. 
4. Increasing social inequality due to discovery of Iron and boost in agriculture people started looking for a religion which promoted egalitarian society. 
5. Virtue of non-violence preached by Buddhism and Jainism actually aimed to create stability in society by ending wars. Peace and stability were essential for flourishing trade and commerce. 
6. Use of vernacular language. 
7. Allowing women and Shudras to practice religion and attain salvation. 
8. Patronage by various Kings. 

Sharman Tradition

What is Sharman Tradition? 

Sramana means "seeker, one who performs acts of austerity, ascetic". 

1. Sharman was offshoot of Vedic religion. 
2. It was cult of wandering Monks.
3. Mendicancy, asceticism were some of its core practices. 

Reasons for its emergence: 

At that time Vedic religion became very centralized and ritualistic. Thus, in order to find true meaning of life and search of God, practice of renouncing Worldly affairs and opt for life of Monk/Sadhu. 

Non-Vedic movement parallel to Vedic Hinduism in ancient India. 

The Shramana tradition gave rise to Jainism, Buddhism, Yoga, Ajivikas, Ajnanas, and Carvakas. and was responsible for concepts such as nirvāṇa, samsara, and mokṣa.

Led to the development of yogic practices. 

Shraman Belief: 

The Shamanic traditions have a diverse range of beliefs.

Ranging from accepting or denying the concept of soul, fatalism to free will.

Idealization of extreme asceticism to that of family life. 

Wearing dress to complete nudity in daily social life. 

Strict ahimsa (non-violence) and vegetarianism to permissibility of violence and meat eating.

Denial of the efficacy of sacrifices and rituals for purification. 

Rejection of the caste system.

Affirmation of Karma and rebirth, Samsara and transmigration of Soul. 

Affirmation of the attainment of moksa through Ahimsa, renunciation and austerities.

Buddhism

About Buddha: Gautam Buddha founded Buddhism and is known as Supreme Buddha. He was born in Lumbini, a little principality of Kapilvastu in modern day Nepal. He belonged to Sakya Clan. 

Other names of Gautama buddha: Sakyamuni, Siddhartha. 

At the age of 29, Gautama left home and rejected his life of riches and embraced a lifestyle of asceticism, or extreme self-discipline. 

Siddhartha explored several paths including bodily mortification which led him to a situation of near death. Abandoning these extreme methods and adopt middle path. 

After 49 consecutive days of meditation, Gautama attained Bodhi (enlightenment) under a pipal tree at Bodhgaya a village in Bihar. 

Buddha gave his first sermon in the village of Sarnath. This event is known as Dharma-Chakra-Pravartana (turning of the wheel of law). 

Buddha tried to convince people through reason and persuasion rather than through displays of supernatural power. 

He died at the age of 80 in 483 BCE at a place called Kushinagara a town in UP. The event is known as Mahaparinirvana. 

Symbols of 5 great events of Buddha’s Life:

1. Buddha’s Birth: Lotus & Bull. 
2. The Great Departure (Mahabhinishkramana): Horse. 
3. Enlightment (Nirvana): Bodhi Tree. 
4. First Sermon (Dhammachakraparivartan): Wheel. 
5. Death (Parinirvana): Stupa. 

Teachings of Buddha:

According to Buddhism – existence of a being is like a wheel of causes and effects. Ignorance gives rise to desire; desire to karma; and karma leads to the impulse to be born again and again to satisfy desire which is the source of suffering. If suffering is to be destroyed : Primary cause – ignorance must be destroyed 

Buddha discarded Vedic Religions an Vedas. Soul does not exist. Believed in concept of Karma. Believed in Rebirth. Propagated Ahimsa. 

Chief objective of Buddhism is attainment of Nirvana. According to Buddha, God is not creator of Universe. Did not believe in transmigration of soul. According to Buddha soul dies with death of person.

According to Buddhist philosophy, the world is transient (anicca) and constantly changing; it is also soulless (anatta) as there is nothing permanent or eternal in it. Within this transient world, sorrow (dukkha) is intrinsic to human existence. 

It is by following the path of moderation between severe penance and self-indulgence that human beings can rise above these worldly troubles. 

In the earliest forms of Buddhism, whether or not god existed was irrelevant. Buddhism is agnostic religion.

Four Noble Truths: 

Four noble truths were taught by Buddha in Dhammachakraparivartan. They are the core teachings of Buddhism. 

1. Sorrow: The world is full of sorrow and everything from birth to death brings sorrows in life. 

2. Cause of Sorrow: The cause of sorrows is desire. It is the un-fulfilment of human desires which leads him to the vicious cycle of births and rebirths. 

3. Prevention of Sorrow: It is possible to prevent sorrow. Man can get rid of sorrow by triumphing over the desires. 

4. The path of Prevention of Sorrow: Man can avoid sorrow by avoiding extremes of life and following middle path or Madhyam Pratipada. The life of moderation and self control along with pursuance of 8 fold path is essential to prevent the sorrow. 

Buddhist Literature

None of the Buddha’s speeches were written down during his lifetime. 

Tripitaka: Tripitaka or Three Baskets is a traditional term used for various Buddhist scriptures. It is known as Pali Canon in English. 

The three Pitakas are: 

1. Vinaya Pitaka included rules and regulations for those who joined the sangha or monastic order. 
2. The Buddha’s teachings were included in the Sutta Pitaka.
3.  Abhidhamma Pitaka dealt with philosophical matters. 

As Buddhism travelled to new regions such as Sri Lanka, other texts such as the Dipavamsa (literally, the chronicle of the island) and Mahavamsa (the great chronicle) were written, containing regional histories of Buddhism. 

Many of these works contained biographies of the Buddha. 

Some of the oldest texts are in Pali, while later compositions are in Sanskrit.

When Buddhism spread to East Asia, pilgrims such as Fa Xian and Xuan Zang travelled all the way from China to India in search of texts. 

Buddhism concept of Nirvana

Buddha said ‘social world as the creation of humans rather than of divine origin.’ The Buddha emphasized individual effort and righteous action as the means to escape from the cycle of rebirth and attain self-realization and nibbana, literally the extinguishing of the ego and desire – and thus end the cycle of suffering for those who renounced the world. 

According to Buddhist tradition, his last words to his followers were: “Be lamps unto yourselves as all of you must work out your own liberation.”

Buddha Nirvana Vs. Moksha of Hinduism. 

• Nirvana: The concept of Nirvana in Buddhism is entirely different from the Hinduism. Buddhism denied the concept of Moksha, however it defines Nirvana has to getting rid of Cycle of Death and birth. It is achieved in the lifetime itself and not after death. To achieve nirvana one should follow moral code of Conduct. 

Buddhist Sangha

Body of disciples of the Buddha and he founded a sangha, an organisation of monks who too became teachers of dhamma. 

These monks lived simply, possessing only the essential requisites for survival, such as a bowl to receive food once a day from the laity. As they lived on alms, they were known as bhikkhus. 

Initially, only men were allowed into the sangha, but later women also came to be admitted. 

According to Buddhist texts, this was made possible through the mediation of Ananda, one of the Buddha’s dearest disciples, who persuaded him to allow women into the sangha.

Many women who entered the sangha became teachers of dhamma and went on to become theirs, or respected women who had attained liberation 

Important facts about Buddhism: 

Jatakas: Jatakas are very much close to folklore literature and they contain the tales of previous births of Buddha in poems. 

Buddha Charita: Buddha Charita is an epic style Sanskrit work by Ashavaghosa (lived in the court of King Kanishka.) and was compiled in second century BC. It depicts life of Buddha. 

Buddhist Councils:

Buddhist councils were the congregation of Buddhist scholars to discuss theological aspects of religion. 

4 important Buddhist councils were held in different eras: 

Buddhist Council: Place; Year; Patron; President; Outcome

1st Buddhist Council

• Rajgir 
• 486 BC 
• Ajatshatru 
• Mahakassapa 
• The First Buddhist Council collected together and arranged the Buddhist Scriptures known as the Pali Tipitaka.

2nd Buddhist Council

• Vaishali 
• 383 BC 
• Kalashoka 
• Sabakmani 
• The split of the Buddhist order into Sthaviravadinis(Theravada) and Mahasanghikas. The split was over small points of monastic discipline.

3rd Buddhist council

• Patliputra 
• 250 BC 
• Ashoka 
• Mogaliputta Tissa (Upagupta).
• Codification of Abhidhamma Pitaka,

4th Buddhist Council

• Kashmir 
• 72 AD 
• Kanishka 
• Vasumitra 
• division of Buddhism into Mahayana & Hinayana sects

Sects of Buddhism 

Hinayana:

• Hinayana is the orthodox, conservative schools of Buddhism. Don’t believe in Idol Worship and try to attain individual salvation through self-discipline and meditation.  Asoka Patronized Hinayana. 
• Pali the language of masses was use by the Hinayana scholars. 
• It is the dominant form of religion in Cambodia, Laos, Sri Lanka, Thailand, and Burma.
• Also called Sthaviravadinis(Theravada) 

Mahayana:

Mahayana Buddhism, also known as the Great Vehicle, is the form of Buddhism prominent in North Asia, including China, Mongolia, Tibet, Korea, and Japan. 

This sect believes in the heavenliness of Buddha and believes in Idol Worship.

Fundamental principles of Mahayana doctrine were based on the possibility of universal liberation from suffering for all beings (hence the “Great Vehicle”) and the existence of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas embodying Buddha Nature. 

It allows salvation can be attained by grace of Buddha. 

The main Mahayana sects include Pure Land, Zen, and Vajrayana (or Tantric) Buddhism.

Kanishka patronised Mahayanism later Harsha supported it

Chief Philosophical Schools of Mahayana:

Chief philosophical schools – 

1. Madhyamika. 

2. Yogachara. 

1. Madhyamika (Nagarjuna): midway between uncompromising realism of Hinayanism and idealism of Yogacharya 

2. Yogacharya – Maitreyanatha: Rejected the realism of Hinayanism and maintained absolute idealism 

Hinayana Buddhism

• 1. Considered Lesser Vehicle. (Inferior)
• 2. Orthodox School.
• 3. Did not believe in idol worship but worshipped symbols.
• 4. For them Buddha was Teacher.
• 5. Individual Liberation.
• 6. Used Pali as language of Communication.
• 7. Patronized by Ashoka.
• 8. Liberation through Meditation.
• 9. Srilanka, Cambodia, Thailand, Laos, Mayanmar.
• 10. Did not believe in concept of Bodhisattva.
• 11. Salvation by deeds.
• 12. Sects are Vaibhashika and Sautantrika.

Mahayana Buddhism

• 1. Considered higher Vehicle. (Superior)
• 2. Moderate school.
• 3. Idol Worshipper.
• 4. Buddha was God.
• 5. Universal Liberation of all.
• 6. Used Sanskrit.
• 7. By Kanishka and Harsha.
• 8. Liberation through magical Mantras.
• 9. China, Korea, Japan, Mongolia.
• 10. Believed in Bodhisattva Concept.
• 11. Salvation by faith.
• 12. Madhyamika and Yogacharya.

Vajrayana Buddhism:

The Vajrayana tradition of Buddhism spread to China, Mongolia, and Tibet.

Vajrayana Buddhists recognise a large body of Buddhist Tantras, some of which are also included in Chinese and Japanese collections of Buddhist literature, and versions of a few even in the Pali Canon. 

Use of Sanskrit as medium. 

Use of various ritual, magic, Tantra, Sacrifices. 

More influence of Hinduism over this sect. Especially of Shakti cult

Vajrayana Buddhism:

• The Vajrayana tradition of Buddhism spread to China, Mongolia, and Tibet.

• Tantric Buddhism that developed in India and neighbouring countries, notably Tibet. 

• Use of Sanskrit as medium. 

• Use of various ritual, magic, Tantra, Sacrifices. 

• More influence of Hinduism over this sect. Especially of Shakti cult.

• Also called Mantrayana (“Vehicle of the Mantra”), which refers to the use of the mantra to prevent the mind from going astray into the world of its fictions. 

Key Principles of Vajryana Buddhism: 

• Vajrayāna is usually translated as Diamond Vehicle or Thunderbolt Vehicle, referring to the Vajra, a mythical weapon which is also used as a ritual implement. 

Vajrayana Buddhism is a form of Buddhism probably originated from the Mahayana tradition. It is based on a complex philosophical and ritual system meant to provide a path towards enlightenment. Vajrayana is sometimes referred to as Tibetan Buddhism. 

Spread of Vajrayana Buddhism: 

Vajrayana Buddhism developed in India around the 6th or 7th century CE. Tantric ideas began to be incorporated into the teachings of Buddhist universities in Northern India, gradually leading to the development of a new tradition. 

It spread from India into the Himalayas, reaching Tibet in 747 CE by the hand of an Indian monk, Padmasambhava, (also known as Guru Rinpoche). 

• In Tibet, this faith grew and became the dominant form of Buddhism. It also reached other parts of China, Mongolia and Japan.

Belief and religious practices of Vajrayana: 

• Female Buddhas known as Dakinis, and fierce deities seen as protectors. They also venerate many Bodhisattvas. 

The rites are often meditation that includes tantric practices, combining the physical and spiritual worlds. 

The rites often incorporate a series of loud sounds of trumpets and the strong smell of incense in order to stimulate the senses. 

The mandalas, which are colorful circular arrays created as representations of the universe. They often included images of deities and demons. 

The mantras, short sentences that are repeated several times to facilitate concentration. 

Prayer wheels that contain printed mantras. Spinning them is considered to release the mantra to the universe. 

Symbolic ritual gestures, known as mudras, often done with the hands and fingers but sometimes with the entire body, including yoga techniques and breath control. 

Buddhism Bodhisattvas

Bodhisattvas are those individuals who are in Path to Become Buddha or attain salvation.

They have deliberately delayed there own salvation in order to help universal Salvation of all.

That anyone who made the aspiration to is therefore a bodhisattva. 

Universe is filled with a broad range of potential Buddhas, from those just setting out on the path of Buddhahood. 

Different Bodhisattvas: 

Important 6 Bodhisattvas are as follows.

1. Avlokiteshwara. 

2. Maitreaya. 

3. Vajrapani. 

4. Samantabhadra. 

5. Manjusri. 

6. Ksitigarbha. 

Avlokiteshwara

• The bodhisattva of compassion. 

• listener of the world's cries who uses skilful means to come to their aid. 

• most universally acknowledged bodhisattva in Mahayana Buddhism and appears unofficially in Theravada Buddhism in Cambodia under the name Lokeśvara. 

• He is said to incarnate in Dalai Lama. 

• He is depicted as holding a lotus flower. 

• He is depicted as female also. 

• A cave wall painting of Avalokiteśvara is devoted in Ajanta Caves as Padmapani.

Manjushri

• Manjusri is a manifestation of great wisdom and meditation. 

• Manjusri is depicted as a male. 

• Manjusri is a bodhisattva associated with prajñā (transcendent wisdom) in Mahayana Buddhism. 

• wielding a flaming sword in his right hand.

Samantabhadra

• associated with meditation. 

• Together with the Buddha and Manjushri, he forms the Shakyamuni trinity in Buddhism. 

• He is considered as Bodhisattva of action in China. 

Ksitigarbha 

• Ksitigarbha means Earth Womb. 

• he is regarded as Bodhisattva of Earth or Hell beings or Mortals. 

• He is regarded as guardian of children and patron deity of deceased children and aborted foetuses in Japanese culture. 

 

Maitreya:

• According to both Mahayana and Theravada Buddhism, Maitreya is regarded as the future buddha. 

• Buddhist tradition, Maitreya is a bodhisattva who will appear on Earth in the future.

• According to scriptures, Maitreya will be a successor to the present Buddha, Gautama Buddha.

• when the dharma will have been forgotten by most on the terrestrial world. 

• popular Budai or laughing Buddha is claimed to be an incarnation of Maitreya.

Vajrapani 

• Vajrapani is depicted as one of the 3 protective deities around Buddha, other are Manjusri and Avlokiteshwara. 

• Vajrapani manifests Buddha’s power, Manjusri manifests BQuddha’s wisdom and Avlokiteshwara manifests Buddha’s compassion. 

• In Japan a dharma protector called Nio is also Vajrapani. 

• guardians of the Buddha standing today at the entrance of many Buddhist temples in East Asian Buddhism in the form of frightening wrestler-like statues. 

Reason for the decline of Buddhism

Increasing factionalism in Buddhist sangha, where Buddhism got divided into numerous sects.

Materialism and corruption in Sangha due to enormous wealth donated to Monastries. 

Introduction of women in Sangha diluted missionaries zeal of Buddhist monk and they started looking for settled family life. 

Persecution of Buddhist monks by Pushyamitra sunga and loss of patronage during Gupta age. 

Dilution of distinctive character of Buddhism which kept it unique from Hinduism, religious practices like use of Sanskrit, magic mantras, sacrifices, rituals, tantric practices etc. creeped into Buddhism. 

Hinduism on the other side reformed its religion like they allowed Women and Shudras to study Vedas and attain salvation. Such reformation in Hinduism and deformation in Buddhism gradually eroded people’s attraction towards Buddhism.

Islamic invasion and destruction of Buddhist monasteries and centres of learning was the final nail in the coffin. As a result by the end of 12th century AD, Buddhism completely vanished from India. 

Revival of Hinduism by Alvar and Naynaar saints in 6th century AD and efforts of Shankaracharya in cultural reunification of India. 

Impact of Buddhism on India

Reformation of Hinduism. 

Values of equality, non-materialism, rationalism, Ahimsa, Karma etc were imbibed in Indian psyche. 

Impetus to local languages in mode of worship. 

Educational institutions like Nalanda, Vikrmashila, etc. helped in spreading education and literacy in India. 

Spread of Indian Culture in various parts of the world. 

Promotion of Art and architecture. 

Gender empowerment as Buddhism allowed Women to become Monks. 

Jainism

Jain Tirtankars:

• Total 24 Jaina Tirtankar. 

• First was Rishabh/Adinath. 

• 24th was Mahavira and he is represented with a symbol of Lion. 

• tirthankaras – literally, those who guide men and women across the river of existence. 

• Jainism is a very ancient religion. As per some traditions, it is as old as the Vedic religion. 

• The Jain tradition has a succession of great teachers or Tirthankaras. 

• Parshwanath who was 23rd tirthankar was born in Varanasi and his symbol is Serpant.

• Bahubali also called Gomteshwara was the Son of 1st tirthankara Rishabhnath.

About Mahavira

• Considered the last Tirthankara.

• He was born at Kundagrama near Vaisali. 

• At the age of 30, Vardhaman renounced his home and became a wandering ascetic. 

• He also observed self-mortification using extreme penance.

• After 13 years of penance, he attained the highest spiritual knowledge called Kevala Jnan.

• He was also called Kevlin: the one who have attained absolute knowledge.

Basic Philosophy of Jainism:

• The most important idea in Jainism is that the entire world is animated: even stones, rocks and water have life. 

• Non-injury to living beings, especially to humans, animals, plants and insects, is central to Jaina philosophy.

• In fact the principle of ahimsa, emphasised within Jainism, has left its mark on Indian thinking as a whole. 

• Gandhiji concept of Ahimsa is derived from Jaina Philosophy. 

• According to Jaina teachings, the cycle of birth and rebirth is shaped through karma. 

• Asceticism and penance are required to free oneself from the cycle of karma. 

• This can be achieved only by renouncing the world; therefore, monastic existence is a necessary condition of salvation.

• Jains do not believe in a God or gods in the way that many other religions do, but they do believe in divine (or at least perfect) beings who are worthy of devotion.

• Mahavira rejected Vedic principles.

• He believed in Karma and transmigration of the soul. The body dies but soul does not. 

• One will be punished or rewarded as per one’s karma.

• Advocated a life of austerity and non-violence.

• Stressed on equality but did not reject the caste system unlike Buddhism. Mahavir said birth of a person in a particular Varna is shaped by his Karma in previous life. Good Karma - higher Varna and bad Karma= lower Varna 

• Asceticism was taken to a great length. Starvation, nudity and self-mortification were expounded. 

• Salvation through extreme Penance.

Anektawad: 

• Philosophically an important contribution of Jainism is the doctrine of Anekantavad (nonabsolutism). 

• As per this, reality can be examined from many standpoints. The same thing can be describe from at least seven standpoints and all can be equally true. 

• This particular school promotes tolerance of contrary opinions among the theologists and philosophers.

Syatwad: 

• No knowledge is certain and absolute.

• Thus Syatwad is advisable thing to adopt. 

• Thus , to every proposition , correct response is Syat. (Perhaps). 

• There can be no absolute Judgement of anything.

Law of Karma: 

• Jaina Philosophy believed in action and reaction. 

• Good Karma, Bad Karma. 

• Good Karma = Punya. 

• Bad Karma = Paap. 

Concept of Moksha in Jainism:

• When individual attain supreme knowledge. 

• Freed from all karma. 

• When a soul is freed from karmas, it becomes free and attains divine consciousness, experiencing infinite knowledge, perception, power, and bliss. 

• Moksha is attained though right faith, right knowledge and right conduct (Tri-ratna). 

5 sacred Vows of Jainism:

The five basic principles or vows (vrats) of Jainism are: 

1. Non-violence (Ahimsa)

Ahimsa is the cardinal principle of Jainism. This principle stands for universal love and compassion for all living-beings. This vow, therefore, requires one not to injure, oppress, enslave, insult, torture or kill any living-being.

2. Truth (Satya)

This vow requires that one should not only refrain from falsehood, but speak the truth which is pleasant and not harmful to others. It is better to remain silent if the truth is likely to cause pain

3. Non-stealing (Achaurya or Asteya)

This vow basically requires that one should be honest in all dealings, not cheat or employ immoral methods to grab/acquire the property/wealth of others.

4. Celibacy/Chastity (Brahmacharya)

This vow requires that one should not have physical relationship with anyone other than one’s spouse.

5. Non-attachment/Non-possession (Aparigrah)

This vow requires a person to set limit to the worldly wealth that he or she reasonably needs. Any excess over this limit should be ‘given back’ to the society.

Three Jewels or Triratna i.e.

1. Right Faith (Samyakdarshana) 

2. Right Knowledge (Samyakjnana) 

3. Right Action (Samyakcharita) 

Sects of Jainism:

When Bhadrabahu left for South India due to Famine in North India, Sthulabahu remained in the North with his followers.

Sthulabahu changed the code of conduct and said that white clothes could be worn. Thus, split Jainism into two sects: 

• Swetambaras: White-clad; Northerners 

• Digambaras: Sky-clad (naked); Southerners 

• It split in Digambara sect and Shwetambara Sect during the Mauryan Era. 

• The Digambara sect observed the tenets of religion strictly and the monks remained naked. 

• Shwetambara sect were liberal and they wore white clothes.

• Shwetambara Follow only 4 vows (except brahmacharya). 

• Unlike Digambara, Swetambara believe women can also achieve liberation. 

• Shwetambaras can be further divided into Sthanakvasi, Murtipujak and Terapanthi. 

Sects of Jainism

Digambara Swetambara

1. Bispantha

2. Terapanth

3. Tarnapanth or Samaiyapanth

4. Gumanpantha

5. totapantha

1. Murtipujak

2. Stahankvasi

3. Terapanth

Difference between Svetambara and Digambara:

Liberation of Woman: 

This is one of the main differences between Svetambara and Digambara. 

Digambara believes that women cannot achieve nirvana or liberation directly. They first have to reborn as a man for this. They give two reasons for this: 

Digambara monks are completely naked. This is not possible for women as they have to possess clothes. It is impractical for women in this society to live naked. Due to this they cannot lead the life of a true monk and hence cannot achieve liberation. 

Dress: 

Digambara believes that in order to achieve nirvana or liberation, one must renounce everything including clothes. Therefore Digambara monks are completely naked.

Svetambara, on the contrary, believes that practice of nudity is not essential to attain liberation. Therefore they wear white clothes. However, nuns in both the sects wear white clothes.

Svetambara idols of Tirthankars are decorated with jewels, wearing loincloth with prominent staring eyes. However, Digambara idols are naked, undecorated with downcast eyes.

Swetambara allow possession of Material property , however Digambara sect is completely against it. 

With respect to Kevlaya Gyan:

Digambara believes that once a monk attains omniscience (Kevala Jnana), then he does not need to food to survive. Svetambara Jains have a different opinion on this. They consider that until Kevali (or omniscient), male or female has not abandoned the body, they need food for the nourishment of the body. 

Kevalya Gyaan: 

• Jain doctrine is established upon undying, universal truths. 

• Kevalya Gyana is absolute knowledge and is the highest form of knowledge that a soul can 

attain. 

• A person who has attained Kevala Gyana is called a Kevalin. 

• To get a status of a Jina, attaining Kevalagyana is required first. 

Jaina Literature:

• Jain Literature is called Jain Agamas. 

• They are canonical texts of Jainism based on Mahavira’s teachings. 

• There are in all 45 texts. 

Patrons of Jainism:

Asoka’s Grandson Samprati.

King Kharvela of Orissa: set up jain rock cut cave. Gangs, Kadambs, Chalukyas, Rastrakutas had patronized Jainism. 

King Amoghavarsha of Rastrakuta dynasty became a Jain Monk. 

The Chalukyan period rock cut caves at badami and aihole have the figures of Jain Tirthankaras. 

The Dilwara Jain temples at Mount Abu were built by Chalukya Dynasty kings between 11 to 13th. 

Point to note:

• Chandragupta Maurya had abdicated his throne towards the end of his life and became an ascetic under the Jain saint Bhadrabahu.

• He migrated to Karnataka and spent his ending days at sallekhana at Shravanabelagola. Bhadrabahu Cave is the place where he is said to have died by fasting. 

There are five Jain caves at Ellora, which belong to the ninth and tenth centuries and they all belong to the Digambara sect. 

Tiger cave at Udayagiri, and Sittannavasala Cave at Padukottai are Jain caves only.

 The Jain philosophy holds that the world is created and maintained by Universal Law  

According to the Jain doctrine, the universe and its constituents (soul, matter, space, time, and motion) have always existed. All the constituents and actions are governed by universal natural laws. 

 The following was/were common to both Buddhism and Jainism?

1) Indifference to the authority of the Vedas 

2) Denial of efficacy of rituals 

Buddhism advocated middle path that is avoidance of extremities of penance and enjoyment. On the other hand Jainism advocated extreme penance and asceticism. 

Both Buddhism and Jainism denied the authority of the Vedas and the efficacy of Rituals. 

The concept of Nirvana in Buddhism? [2013] 

a) The extinction of the flame of desire

It is the ultimate goal of Buddhist tradition. It refers to the extinction of desire, hatred, and 

ignorance and, ultimately, of suffering and rebirth. 

 

 Applicable to Jain doctrine? 

1. The surest way of annihilating Karma is to practice penance. 

2. Every object, even the smallest particle has a soul. 

3. Karma is the bane of the soul and must be ended. 

 

Kingdoms were associated with the life of the Buddha?

1. Kosala 

2. Magadha 

Buddha was born in Lumbini, in Kosala kingdom and died in Kusinara, in Magadha kingdom. 

Gandhara was not directly associated with the life of Buddha. It was expansion of Maurya empire that Gandhara received much Buddhist influence during the reign of Ashoka. 

 

The religious history of India, consider the following statements:

1. Bodhisattva is a compassionate one on his way to enlightenment. 

2. Bodhisattva delays achieving his own salvation to help all sentient beings on their path to it. 

Bodhisattva, one who seeks Enlightenment for the sake of all beings is central to Mahayana Buddhism, not Hinayana. 

The Indian History, who among the following is a future Buddha, yet to come to save the world? 

1) Maitreya 

Maitreya, is considered as the future Buddha, who will descend to earth to preach anew the dharma when the teachings of Gautama Buddha have completely decayed.

 

The religious practices in India, the "Sthanakvasi" sect belongs to [2018] 

1) Jainism 

Sthanakavasi is a modern subsect of the Shvetambara sect of Jainism. It believes that idol worship is not essential in the path of soul purification and attainment of Nirvana/Moksha. 

1. Deification of the Buddha 

2. Treading the path of Bodhisattvas 

3. Image worship and rituals 

The Mahayana followers believe in idol or image worship of Buddha. 

Bodhisattva is an ideal in Mahayana Buddhism and thus treading the path of Bodhisattvas is promoted in Mahayana Buddhism. 

With reference to the cultural history of India, which one of the following is the correct description of the term 'paramitas'? 

a) The earliest Dharmashastra texts written in aphoristic (sutra) style 

b) Philosophical schools that did not accept the authority of Vedas 

c) Perfections whose attainment led to the Bodhisattva path 

d) Powerful merchant guilds of early medieval South India 

Paramita in Mahayana Buddhism are perfections or virtues towards attainment of enlightenment. 

In the Mahayana tradition, the path of a bodhisattva is described in terms of six paramitas: 

Dana paramita: to cultivate the attitude of giving; 

Sila paramita: refraining from harm; 

Kshanti paramita: the ability not to be perturbed by anything; 

Virya paramita: to find joy in what is virtuous, positive or wholesome; 

Dhyana paramita: not to be distracted 

Prajna paramita: the perfect discrimination of phenomena. 

 

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* Lokottaravadin sect was an offshoot of Mahasanghika sect of Buddhism. 

The deification of Buddha by Mahasanghikas fostered Mahayana Buddhism. 

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