Indus Valley Civilization:
Separated into three phases:
1. Early Harappan Phase(3300 BCE–2600 BCE).
2. Mature Harappan Phase (2600 BCE–1900 BCE).
3. Late Harappan Phase (1900 BCE–1300 BCE).
It started declining around 1900 BC and disappeared around 1400 BC.
IVC belonged to Bronze age.
This is also called Harappan Civilization after the first city to be excavated, Harappa (Punjab, Pakistan).
Pre-Harappan civilization has been found at Mehrgarh, Pakistan which shows the first evidence of cotton cultivation.
Geographical Distribution:
Geographically, this civilization covered Punjab, Sindh, Baluchistan, Rajasthan, Gujarat and Western Uttar Pradesh.
East to West-
It extended from Sutkagengor (in Baluchistan) in the West to Alamgirpur (Western UP) in the East.
North to South-
Mandu (Jammu) in the North to Daimabad (Ahmednagar, Maharashtra) in the South.
Shortughai is IVC site in Afganistan.
Discovery of Indus Valley Civilization (IVC)
The Harappa site was first briefly excavated by Sir Alexander Cunningham in 1872-73.
The first extensive excavations at Harappa were started by Rai Bahadur Daya Ram Sahni
in 1920.
Sir John Hubert Marshall led an excavation campaign in 1921-1922, during which he
discovered the ruins of the city of Harappa.
By 1931, the Mohenjo-daro site had been mostly excavated by Marshall and Sir Mortimer Wheeler.
Salient Features:
Town Planning
- IVC was Urban Settlement.
- Grid pattern of Housing.
- The streets were straight and cut each other at right angles.
- The streets and roads divided the city
into rectangular blocks.
- Archaeologists have discovered the
lamp posts at intervals. This suggests
the existence of street lights.
Dustbins were also provided on the streets.
These prove the presence of good municipal
administration.
Drainage System
- One of the most remarkable features of the Indus valley civilization is that the city was provided with an excellent closed drainage system.
- Each house had its own drainage and soak pit which was connected to the public drainage.
- They were covered and had manholes at intervals for cleaning and clearing purposes.
- Thus, Indus people had a perfect underground drainage system.
- No other contemporary civilization gave so much attention to cleanliness.
Large Granaries
- Large Granaries were constructed for preservation of Grains.
- Thus these storage provided food security and also trade of Agro Products.
- Mohenjodaro site of Harappa have these large
Granaries.
The Great Bath
- The most famous building found at Mohenjo-Daro is a great bath.
- There is use of Burnt bricks, Mortar and Gypsum in the Great bath but NO use of stone is there.
Art and Craft:
Stone Statues:
The stone statuaries found at Harappa and
Mohenjodaro are excellent examples of
handling three dimensional volumes.
In stone are two male figures.
1. Torso in red sandstone.
2. Bearded man in steatite.
Bronze Statues:
- Their bronze statues were made using the ‘lost wax’ technique in which the wax figures were first covered with a coating of clay and allowed to dry.
- Then the wax was heated and the molten
wax was drained out through a tiny hole
made in the clay cover.
- The hollow mold thus created was filled with molten metal which took the original shape of the object.
- Once the metal cooled, the clay cover was
completely removed.
(Note: Dancing Girl is portrayed in Tribhanga
Posture which is a dance pose in Odisi)
Terracotta
The Indus Valley people made terracotta images also but compared to the stone and bronze statues the terracotta representations of human form are crude in the Indus Valley.
Terracotta Use:
1. Sculpture like Mother Goddess.
2. Seals made of Terracotta.
3. Toys.
Seals:
Materials used: Archaeologists have discovered thousands of seals, usually made of steatite, Terracotta, Gold, Ivory.
Motifs: beautiful figures of animals, such as unicorn bull, Rhinoceros, Tiger, Elephant, Bison, Goat, Buffalo, etc.
Purpose:
The purpose of producing seals was mainly commercial. Traders used these seals to prove to
ensure authenticity and non-adulteration of goods in transit.
Pottery:
The Indus Valley pottery consists chiefly of very fine wheel made wares, very few being hand-made.
Plain pottery is more common than painted ware.
Glazed pottery
- The pottery of the Harappan civilization is much excellent.
They made the ancient glazed pottery.
- They decorate the pot with a perfect craftsmanship. The supply evidence of the advance techniques known to the
Indus Valley pottery.
Unglazed Pottery
The also made the plain and unglazed pottery, which is undecorated. It is more shared and plain design of pot.
Uses of different patterns
- The many patterns in their pots creating.
- The most traditional designs of the Harappan civilization are a series of intersecting circles.
- Any other civilization does not probably use this design.
Religion of Indus Valley
- Religion: Male and Female both gods were worshipped.
- Mother goddess (Fertility).
- Pashupati Shiva (Mythical, 3 horned hear) sitting in posture of Yogi surrounded by animals Rhino, tiger, deer, buffalo, elephant, Pipal trees, Pigeon,
- Swastik symbol (The symbol for the first time was found in IVC).
- IVC people were icon/idol Worshipper.
- Worshipped multiple Gods (Polytheist).
Crop Pattern of Harappans
- The knowledge of crop pattern was based on granaries.
- Harappans cultivated rice, wheat, barley and mustard.
- They were the first in the world to grow cotton.
- They also grew water-melon, pea and dates.
- In kalibangan site in Rajasthan shows evidences of ploughing for Agriculture
Metals used by Harappans
- They were the first people in the world to use copper and it was the earliest metal used in India
- They used bronze also which was an alloy of copper and tin.
- Evidences of use of Gold and Silver too have been found
- They also knew lead.
- Iron was not used by the people of Harappan Civilization.
Economy of Indus Valley Civilization
Apart from Agriculture, IVC was primarily a trade and commerce centric civilization.
Metal money was not used and trade was carried by barter system.
They practised navigation on the coast of the Arabian Sea.
They also carried commerce with Mesopotamian
civilization which was situated on the banks of Tigris and Euphrates.
The Harappans carried on long distance trade in lapis lazuli; which may have contributed
to the social prestige of the ruling class.
(Lapis Lazuli is a deep blue rock which was used for ornamentation by people of IVC and mined from Shortughai in Afghanistan.)
Script of Indus Valley Civilization
- Has not been deciphered yet.
- It was mainly pictographic script where each letter signify some object/sound/idea.
- It has no connection with Sanskrit or any other script of any other civilization.
Use of Animals:
- Ox was used for transport.
- Bull was sacred animal for IVC.
- IVC people were not aware of Horses.
- They domesticated Cats, Dogs and Elephants.
Important sites of Indus Valley Civilization
Harappa
Located in Punjab of Pakistan.
First site to be excavated and because of which IVC is also called Harappan Civilization.
Mohenjodaro (Mound of Dead)
Situated on the Bank of river Indus in Pakistan.
the largest city of the Indus valley civilization.
Important findings:
- Great bath
- Granary
Bronze dancing girl
- Seal of Pasupathi Mahadeva
- Steatite statue of beard man
- A piece of woven cotton
Sutkagendor
- Balochistan province, Pakistan on Dast river.
- A trade point between Harappa and Babylon.
Chanhudaro
- On Banks of river Indus In sindh province of Pakistan.
- Famous for bead making.
- Footprint of a dog chasing a cat is also found here.
Amri
- On the banks of river Indus in Pakistan.
Kalibangan
- Located in Rajasthan on the bank of Ghaggar river.
- Items like: Fire altar, Camel bones, Wooden plough
Lothal
- Located in Gujarat at Gulf of Khambat.
- Manmade port.
- Dockyard.
- is called Manchester of the IVC.
- Fire altars are found here.
Surkotada
- Located in Gujarat.
- Beads and Horse bones are found here.
Banawali
- Located in Haryana.
- Evidence of both pre-Harappan and Harappan culture are found here.
Dholavira
- Located in Gujarat in Rann of Kachchh.
- Since this site is located in Arid regions of Gujarat, Water reservoir and harvesting structure are found here.
- Recently Dholavira is declared as World Heritage Site.
Late Harappan Phase
There were certain changes in the Civilization which accentuates that IVC was in stage of
decline. This decline phase of IVC is referred as Late harappan phase.
Changes from Harappan to Late Harappan Phase or sub Indus culture:
- Urban to rural settlement.
- Long distance trade declined.
- Evidence of violence in different sites of IVC like people started hiding precious belongings under Earth, weapons started getting produced, mass grave were dug for dead body disposal.
- Standard weighing system which was common during Harappan phase was in stage of decline during late Harappan phase.
Important Late Harappan sites are:
- Prabhas Patan and Rangpur in Gujarat.
- Ahar near Udaipur Rajasthan.
- Daulatpur Haryana.
- Alamgirpur UP.
Decline of Indus Valley: Many theories are associated with decline of IVC.
1. Aryan invasion.
2. Flood.
3. Change in river pattern.
4. Drying of Saraswati river.
5. Climate change.
Decline of Indus Valley:
- Various elements of the Indus Civilization are found in later cultures, suggesting the civilization did not disappear suddenly due to an invasion.
- Many scholars argue that changes in river patterns caused the large civilization to break up into smaller communities called late Harappan cultures.
- People moved to Ganga basin.
- Urban culture got fragmented into isolated rural settlement.
- Breakdown of trade led to disintegration of civilization.
Important facts about Indus Valley Civilization
- Mehargarh site in Afghanistan is older than IVC thus it is Pre-Harappan site.
- IVC script has not been deciphered yet.
- IVC used baked as well as sundried bricks.
- Use of standard weights and measurement throughout the civilization.
- IVC generally buried their dead.
- In Lothal and Dholavira fortified settlements are found.
- The port cities are Sutkagendor, Balakot, Lothal, Allahdino, and Kuntasi.
- Script of IVC is written in right to left akin Kharosti Script.
- Mesopotamia, Egypt and Chinese Civilization
were contemporary to IVC.
- No temples or any other religious building have been found in the Indus Valley Civilization.
- Sumerian civilization called Mesopotamian used to refer People of IVC as Meluhha.
- Egyptian used Sun dried Bricks and Mesopotamians used Baked bricks but IVC people used Burnt Bricks for construction.
- 2-3 storied buildings are also found in IVC.
Vedic Civilization:
- The Vedic Age was between 1500 BC and 600 BC.
- This is the next major civilization that occurred in ancient India after the decline of the Indus Valley Civilization by 1400 BC.
- The Vedas were composed in this period and this gives this age the name.
- The Vedas are also the chief source of information about this era.
- The Vedic Age started with the coming of the Aryans or Indo-Aryans.
Phases of Vedic Civilization:
This period between 1500 B.C and 600 B.C is divided into the
- Early Vedic Period or Rig Vedic Period (1500 B.C -1000 B.C)
- Later Vedic Period (1000B.C – 600 B.C).
Area of Settlement:
Area extending from Afghanistan to the Gangetic
valley.
The Sindhu, identical with the Indus, is the river par excellence of the Rigvedic Aryans and is repeatedly mentioned, so also are its five tributaries – the Vitasta (Jhelum), Asikni (Chenab), Parushni (Ravi), Vipasa (Beas) and the Sutudri (Sutlej).
The Vedic Civilization flourished along the river
Saraswati, in a region that now consists of the
modern Indian states of Haryana and Punjab.
Later, they moved into Indo-Gangetic plains.
About Aryans:
Typically, the age of Aryans is known as the
Vedic age because the four major Vedas were created in this time.
The word Aryan is derived from the Sanskrit
word “arya” which means noble, not ordinary.
They arrived from Central Asia.
It is generally agreed that they spoke Indo-Aryan Language, Sanskrit.
They were semi-nomadic, pastoral people, who led a rural life as compared to the urban Harappans. (Pastoral people, also known as pastoralists, shepherds, or pastors, are groups of people who live a nomadic or semi-nomadic lifestyle. They rely on domesticated animals for food, labor, and trade)
Society was mainly male dominated; women were treated with dignity and honour
Early life in this period seems to be mainly pastoral with agriculture being the secondary
occupation
Domesticated horses to ride.
It is believed that they entered India through the Khyber Pass.
Advent of Aryans and conflict for dominance:
Aryans had to fight against indigenous population calles Dasyus.
Since Aryans used Horse driven chariots, they were able to defeat locals.
The struggle shifted into Intra Aryans conflict.
Different clans of Aryans started fighting among themselves to establish dominance.
Bharata clan fought with combined army of ten tribal groups in battle of ten kings , in this
battle Bharata clan emerged victorious.
Bharata joined hands with Purus and formed another clan called Kurus.
Aryans mode of occupation:
They were mainly pastoralist and agriculture was undertaken mainly for fodder cultivation.
Cow was most economical and sacred Animal.
Most of the wars were fought for Cows which was generally referred and Govishti.
Mostly Cow and women slaves were donated to Priests.
Metallurgy was called ‘Ayas’ generally referred for copper and Bronze.
Land route was more preferred to Aryans rather than Sea route.
Comparison of Early Vedic Period and Later Vedic Period:
Political Organization
Early Vedic Period
- ‘Kula‘ was the basic unit of political organization.
- Multiple families together of kinship formed a ‘grama‘.
- Leader of ‘grama’ was ‘Gramani‘.
- Group of villages were called ‘visu’, headed by ‘vishayapati‘.
- The highest political and administrative unit was ‘jana‘ or tribe.
- There were several such tribal kingdoms – Bharatas, Matsyas, Yadus and Purus.
- The head of kingdom was ‘Rajan‘ or king.
- The Rig Vedic polity was hereditary monarchy normally.
- There were two bodies- Sabha (council of elders) and Samiti (general assembly of people)
- Bali was the voluntary tribute/sacrifice offered to Rajan.
- There was no territorial administration as Aryans were migrants and moved from one place to another.
Later Vedic Period
- Larger kingdoms by amalgamation formed
‘Mahajanapadas or rashtras‘.
- Therefore, the power of king increased and he
performed various rituals and sacrifices to make his position strong like Rajasuya (consecration
ceremony), Asvamedha (horse sacrifice)
and Vajpeya (chariot race).
- The kings assumed title of Samrat (sole ruler).
- But, importance of the Samiti and the Sabha diminished.
Social Organization
Early Vedic Period
- The Rig Vedic society was basically patriarchal.
- The basic unit of society was ‘graham’ or family, its head was called as ‘grahapathi’.
- Monogamy was practiced while polygamy among royal and noble families was observed.
- Women had equal opportunities as men for their spiritual and intellectual development. Apala, Viswavara, Ghosa and Lopamudra were women poets.
- Women could attend the popular assemblies.
-No child marriage and no sati practice.
- Social divisions were not rigid.
- Widow remarriage was allowed.
- Cattle especially cows became very important.
Later Vedic Period
The Varna system became prevalent- four divisions of society :Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas and Sudras.
- A Brahmin and Kshatriyas occupied a higher
position than others.
- Various sub-castes on the basis of occupation
emerged.
- Women were considered inferior and subordinate to men now and also lost their political rights of attending assemblies.
- Child marriages became common.
- Gotras appeared and institutionalized.
Economic structure of Vedic Period
Early Vedic Period
- They were a pastoral and cattle-rearing people.
- They also indulged in agriculture.
- Products made out of copper, iron and bronze were in use.
- They had horse chariots.
- Rivers were used for transport.
- Cotton and woollen fabrics were spun and used.
- Initially trade was conducted through the barter system but later on coins called ‘nishka’ were in use.
- Since Vedic Aryans were Tribal and migrant community land were not gifted rather Cows
and women slaves were gifted.
- Tribute from people to the Rajan was voluntary as Aryans were not practicing settled agriculture
Later Vedic Period
- Agriculture became the chief occupation of people.
- Industrial activity became specialized with metal work, leather work, carpentry and pottery advancement.
- Internal trade as well as foreign trade also became extensive (they traded with Babylon
through sea).
- Hereditary merchants (vaniya) came into existence as a different class.
- Vaisyas indulged in trade and commerce organized themselves into guilds known as
‘ganas‘.
- Coins: Besides ‘nishka’, ‘satamana’– gold coins and ‘krishnala‘ – silver coins were also used
as a medium of exchange.
Religion
Early Vedic period
Rig Vedic Aryans worshiped natural forces like earth, fire, wind, rain and thunder by personifying them into many gods.
- Some important Rig Vedic gods Prithvi (Earth), Agni (Fire), Vayu (Wind), Varuna (Rain)
and Indra (Thunder).
- Next came ‘Agni’ – an intermediary between the gods and the people.
- ‘Varuna’ – the upholder of natural order.
- Female Gods – ‘Aditi’ and ‘Ushas’.
- No temples and no idol worship.
- Prayers and sacrifices were offered to gods for rewards like childrens, food or wealth and not for spiritual upliftment.
Later vedic period
- Indra and Agni lost their importance.
- Prajapathi (the creator), Vishnu (the protector) and Rudra (the destroyer) became chief
Deities.
- Sacrifices and the rituals became more elaborate.
But the importance of prayers declined.
- Priesthood became a hereditary profession. They dictated the rules for these rituals and
sacrifices.
- Therefore, by the end of this period there was a strong reaction against this priestly domination (also against elaborate sacrifices and rituals). This led to the rise of Buddhism and Jainism.
Vedic Literature
- The word ‘Veda’ originated from the root ‘vid’ which means spiritual knowledge/subject
of knowledge/means of acquiring knowledge.
- The four Vedas are: Rig, Yajur, Sama and Atharva.
- Rig Veda was composed during the Early Vedic Age. The other three were written in the Later Vedic Age.
1. Rig Veda: this is the oldest religious text in the world. It contains 1028 hymns and is
classified into 10 mandalas.
2. Yajur Veda – this deals with the ways to perform rituals.
3. Sama Veda – deals with music. Indian music is said to be originated from Sama Veda.
4. Atharva Veda – contains spells and magical formula.
Other Vedic literature are:
Brahmanas – Prose about vedic hymns, rituals and philosophies.
Aryankas – Deal with mysticism, rites and rituals.
Aryankas – Deal with mysticism, rites and rituals.
Upnishads – Philosophical texts dealing with soul, mysteries of nature.
Ramayana was authored by Valmiki.
Mahabharata was written by Ved Vyasa.
Important terms related to Vedic Period:
Vrihi - Rice
Aghanya- Not to be killed, generally Cow was referred as Aghanya
Bhagadugh - carpenter
Gavishti - a fight for cows.
Kulala - Potter
Takshan / Teshtri - carpenter
Naditarna - Name for river Saraswati.
Dasyus - Pre-Aryan local inhabitants of the region.
Purandar - Indra
Shyama Ayas/Krishna Ayas - Iron
Bali - Voluntary tribute from Subjects to the King.
Sangrihitri - the officer who collect taxes.
Pushan - God of Shudras who protected cattles.
Goghna - The guest
Indus valley Civilization Vs. Vedic Civilization
Source of Information:
- The sources of information of the Harappan civilization are mainly archaeological, while the
- Vedic culture is mostly known from the literary sources.
Ethnic lineage
Harappans are said to have been the original inhabitants of India while the Aryans are believed to have come to India from central Asia.
Occupation
The main occupation of the IVC people was trade and commerce.
The Vedic civilization on the other hand was essentially rural character, with agriculture
and Pastoral as the main occupation of the people.
The people of both civilizations were, of course, agriculturists, but the Indus valley people were certainly more industrialized and commercialized than the Aryans and carried on brisk trade within the sub-continent as well as with distant countries of the West. And,
that was the primary cause of their thriving economy resulting in city-culture.
Time Period
Iron was not known to the Indus valley people while the Aryans used it.
The Indus valley made use of only copper and probably bronze as well. That is why their
culture belonged to what is called Chalcolithic age (when man used both copper and stone
implements) while the Iron age started with the Vedic period.
Type of settlement:
IVC was Urban settlement while Vedic civilization was Rural settlement.
Faith
The Indus Valley people were icon-
worshippers, whereas the people of Vedic
civilization were opposed to icon-
worship. The common gods of the Indus
Valley people were Mothor-Goddess,
Siva, tree, animals etc.
The people of the Vedic age on the other hand were nature worshippers the various
objects of nature like Varuna, Indra, Prithvi, Sun.
The people of Vedic age attached great
importance to fire. However, this was not
the case with the people of the Indus Valley civilization.
Use of Metals:
The people of the Indus Valley civilization were completely ignorant of the use of the iron.
The people of the Vedic age knew the use of various metals. They used gold and copper in
the beginning but later on also used silver, iron and bronze.
Use of Horses
Vedic people domesticated Horses but Horses were not known/Domesticated by IVC.
Entertainment
The Aryan people took delight in games like horse racing and chariot racing which could
be categorized as out-door games.
The people of the Indus Valley on the other hand loved dancing and music and hencebloved in-door hobbies.
Animals
Nandin-bull (humped bull) was probably a sacred animal to the Indus valley people while cow occupied a sacred place among the Aryans.
Last rites
The Indus valley people buried their dead while
the Aryans burnt them.
Script
The script of the Indus valley people was
mainly phonetic while the Aryans succeeded
in developing Sanskrit literature and its script as well.
Script of IVC has not been deciphered yet.
Worship mechanism
Performance of Yajnas was a necessary part of the religious life of the Aryans while we find
no such religious rituals among the Indus valley people.
Idol-worship in some rudimentary form was accepted by the Indus valley people but it was
absolutely absent among the Vedic Aryans.
Caste System
Hereditary caste-system and Varna Asram Dharma constituted an essential part of the social system of the later Aryans while these were nonexistent among the Indus valley people.
Nature of living
Indus people were basically peace loving. Their arms (swords, daggers, arrow-heads, spears) were primitive in nature. Aryans were warlike people and used all kinds of traditional arms and armour and had devised a full-fledged science of war.
Note:
Founded in Mohenjo-daro -
a) Bronze image of a dancing girl
b) Steatite image of a bearded man
c) Seal representing Mother Goddess with a plant growing from her womb and woman to be
sacrificed by a man with a knife
Regarding the Indus Valley Civilization -
1. It was predominantly a secular civilization and the religious element, though present, did not dominate the scene,
2. During this period, cotton was used for manufacturing textiles in India.
Characterizes the people of Indus Civilization?
They worshipped both male and female deities.
The “dharma” and “rita” depict a central idea of ancient Vedic civilization of India -
Dharma was a conception of obligations and of the discharge of one’s duties to oneself and to others.
Rita was the fundamental moral law governing the functioning of the universe and all it contained.
The religion of early Vedic Aryans was primarily of worship of nature and Yajnas